Behavioral Learning Theories and E-learning

There are various behavioral theories that extend from Ivan Palov’s classical conditioning to the operant conditioning of B.F. Skinner. In his experiment, Pavlov made the discovery that led to the real beginnings of behavioral theory. He could reliably predict that dogs would salivate when food was placed in the mouth through a reflex called the “salivary reflex” in digestion. Yet he soon realized that, after time, the salivary reflex occurred even before the food was offered. Because the sound of the door and the sight of the attendant carrying the food “had repeatedly and reliably preceded the delivery of food to the mouth in the past,” the dogs had transferred the reflex to these events (Schwartz & Lacy, 1982, p. 21). Thus, the dogs began salivating simply at the door’s sound and the attendant’s presence. Pavlov continued experimenting with the dogs using a tone to signal for food. He found that the results matched and the dogs had begun to salivate with the tone and without food (Schwartz & Lacy, 1982, pp. 20-24).

Behavioral Learning theories

What Pavlov discovered was first order conditioning. In this process, a neutral stimulus that causes no natural response in an organism is associated with an unconditioned stimulus, an event that automatically or naturally causes a response. This usually temporal association causes the response to the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, to transfer to the neutral stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus no longer needs to be there for the response to occur in the presence of the formerly neutral stimulus. Given that this response is not natural and has to be learned, the response is now a conditioned response and the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment the tone was the neutral stimulus that was associated with the unconditioned stimulus of food. The unconditioned response of salivation became a conditioned response to the newly conditioned stimulus of the tone (Beecroft, 1966). When another neutral stimulus is introduced and associated with the conditioned stimulus, even further conditioning takes place. The conditioned response trained to occur only after the conditioned stimulus now transfers to the neutral stimulus making it another conditioned stimulus. Now the second conditioned stimulus can cause the response without both the first conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. Thus, many new conditioned responses can be learned (Schwartz & Lacy, 1982).

Palov’s work influenced the work of E.L. Thorndike in the area of applying a behavioral approach to education. He applied his “connectionism theory” into educational planning and developed “law of effect” and “law of exercise” (Gillani, 2003. p. 27).E. L. Thorndike did not believe that it was comprehensive because most behavior in the natural environment was not simple enough to be explained by Pavlov’s theory. He conducted an experiment where he put a cat in a cage with a latch on the door and a piece of salmon outside of the cage. After first trying to reach through the cage and then scratching at the bars of the cage, the cat finally hit the latch on the door and the door opened. With the repetition of this experiment, the amount of time and effort spent on the futile activities of reaching and scratching by the cats became less and the releasing of the latch occurred sooner. Thorndike’s analysis of this behavior was that the behavior that produced the desired effect became dominant and therefore, occurred faster in the next experiments. He argued that more complicated behavior was influenced by anticipated results, not by a triggering stimulus as Pavlov had supposed. This idea became known as the law of effect, and it provided the basis for Skinner’s operant conditioning analysis of behavior (Schwartz & Lacy, 1982, pp. 24-26). Connectionism as Thorndike mentioned is a process of forming a connection between stimulus and respond, and he defined learning as habit formation. Law of effect takes place when a connection is created between stimulus and response and is followed by reward. The next important principle posited by Thorndike for educational purposes was the law of exercise. This principle states that repetitions strengthen connection between stimulus and response. In other words the more practice the stronger the connection is (Gillani, 2003).

Similarly Skinner developed operant conditioning based on stimuli-responses. Although Thorndike developed the basic law of effect, Skinner took this law and constructed a research program around it. He based this program on the experiments he had conducted in his study of punishment and reward. According to Skinner, the behavior caused by the law of effect was called operant conditioning because the behavior of an organism changed or operated on the environment. There were no real environmental stimuli forcing a response from an organism as in classical conditioning. Operant conditioning consists of two important elements, the operant or response and the consequence. If the consequence is favorable or positively reinforcing, then the likelihood of another similar response is more than if the consequence is punishing (Mischel, 1993). In Skinner’s experiment a rat was put into a box with a lever. Each time the lever was depressed, food was released. As a result, the rat learned to press the lever to receive favorable consequences. However, when the food was replaced with shocks, the lever depressing stopped almost immediately due to punishing consequences. Similar results were produced by stopping the positive reinforcement of food altogether in a process called extinction, but the operant conditioned response decreased at a much slower rate than when punishment was used. This kind of operant conditioning occurs in the rewarding or punishing discipline action taken towards a child (Schwartz, 1982). Gilliani (2003) points out that there are operant responses that a child has the innate tendency to acquire and these operant responses become rooted in human behavior when they are properly reinforced. “This is why Skinner refers to his theory as operant conditioning” and becomes the goal of learning and education (Gilliani, 2003. p. 29).

Behavioral Learning theories and Language Learning

Behaviorists also believe that knowledge is developed through sensory impressions. Learners, therefore, build knowledge through everyday experiences in a type of trial and error approach to knowledge-building. Ba­sically, “the behaviorist theory of stimulus-response learning, particu­larly as developed in the operant conditioning model of Skinner, con­siders all learning to be the establishment of habits as a result of rein­forcement and reward” (Rivers, 1981, 73). This is related to Pavlov’s experiment which indicates that stimulus and response work together. In the case of learning first language, a baby obtains native language habits via varied babblings which resemble the appropriate words repeated by a person or object near him. Since for his babblings and mutterings he is rewarded, this reward reinforces further articulations of the same kind into grouping of syllables and words in a similar situation. In this way, he goes on emitting sounds, groups of sounds, and as he grows up he combines the sentences via generalizations and analogy, which in some complicated cases, condition him to commit errors (Palermo, D.S., 1978). In the teaching and learning contexts, Skinner and other behaviorists consider that students’ educational problems must be assessed and instructional objectives should be written to treat the problem. After identifying the objectives, the teacher should seek out the most logical sequence of instructional materials presented in small steps to treat the problem. If the students respond to the problem, then they must be immediately reinforced (Gillani, 2003).

Behavioral Learning theories and E-learning

The behaviorist theories previously discussed influences the e-learning in term of steps taken by a learner (see flow chart 1.). CD tutorials such as TOEFL tutorial, IELTS tutorial, grammar exercises on CDs, and some exercises published in some web sites, such as http://virtualskies.arc.nasa.gov, http://www.eslcafe.com/quiz/, http://a4esl.org/, are some examples of the influence of behaviorist theory to the e-learning environment. In this kind of situation the learners interact with the learning materials and exercises saved in a CD or server and the learners will get rewards when they do the exercises correctly and have to finish certain level before continuing to the next. Gilliani (2003) calls this type as practice and drill. Most teachers use this type of practice for reinforcement, review or self study materials for their students since the elements of target language and intervention may not cater to the individual students. The following chart shows a typical e-learning practice and drill program influenced by behaviorist theories as previously discussed.

Typical flow chart for e-learning practice and
flowchart

flowchart

Flow Chart.1.

To illustrate the influence of behaviorism theories in a web-model of learning, a sophisticated website designed for high schools and flight technology programs in America is discussed. This website (http://virtualskies.arc.nasa.gov) was developed by NASA’S Educational Technology Team. The goals of this website are; (1) to increase the learner’s awareness of aviation research and contributions made by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), (2) To explore the world of aviation and air traffic management. These goals are stated in the first page of the web. These goals are broken down into several subordinating objectives. Gillani (2003) states that development of e-learning tutorial programs, based on behavioral principles include; (1) assessment (students’ educational problems must be assessed), (2) breakdowns of the main goal into subordinating goals (instructional objectives should be written to treat the educational problem), and (3) determine the events of instruction for each subordinating goal (logical sequence of instructional materials should be presented in small steps).

‘Virtual skies’ web site uses a behavioral approach at various levels within its format. Text, animation and interactive graphics are used. In the case of this site, the subordinating goals are not immediately identifiable (http://virtualskies.arc.nasa.gov/vsmenu/vsmenu.html). However, mousing over each circular image on the orientation (opening) page reveals the subordinating goals; Aviation, Weather, Aviation Research, Airport Design, Air Traffic Management, Navigation, Communication, and Aeronautics (see picture 1).


By clicking one of the circular icons, the learner enters a subordinating goal or content section. Within each content section, the learner can explore the content in greater depth as the learner tries to accomplish the learning goals. Each of the subordinating goals breaks down into four instructional actions; Tutorials, Take Control, You Decide, and Certification.

New concepts or learning materials which can be presented by text, graphics or animation are located in tutorial pages. The Take Control phase provides structured practice which varies from a basic recall format to a synthesis level activity. You Decide represents independent practice providing the learner with enough practice to master skills, concept and process identified in the goals. In the case of virtual skies website, ‘Certification’ refers to the evaluation. This certification or evaluation process consist of multiple choice quiz to be answered online and the learner should pass the quiz with 80% correct to move to the next level otherwise the learner should review the ‘Tutorial’ section.

In regard to the above illustration, Gilliani (2003) points out that there is a place for the use of a behavioral approach to e-learning, and states that there are important factors to be considered such as gathering adequate information about the target learners, designing the content and making an appropriate decision about what teaching and learning model should be implemented in the e-learning program. In other words, in the e-learning environment the behaviorists believe that learners should be told the explicit outcomes of the learning so that they can set expectations and can judge for themselves whether or not they have achieved the outcome of the lesson. Tests or assessments must be conducted to determine whether or not they have achieved the learning outcome (Jonassen, 1991). These should be integrated into the learning sequence to check the learner’s achievement level and to provide appropriate feedback. More importantly the learning materials must be sequenced appropriately to promote learning, such as from simple to complex, known to unknown or knowledge to application (McKay, 2005). Appropriate feedback should be provided so that students can monitor how they are doing and able to take corrective action if required (Galavis, 1998).

In other words, behaviorists see the mind as a black box, in the sense that a response to a stimulus can be observed quantitatively, thereby ignoring the effect of thought processes occurring in the mind. Behaviorists look at overt behaviors that can be observed and measured as indicators of learning (Good & Brophy, 1990). The implications of behaviorist theory for online learning:

* Learners should be told the explicit outcomes of the learning so they can set expectations and judge for themselves whether or not they have achieved the outcome of the online lesson.
* Learners must be tested to determine whether or not they have achieved the learning outcome. Online testing or other forms of testing and assessment should be integrated into the learning sequence to check individual learner’s achievement level and provide appropriate feedback.
* The learning materials must be sequenced appropriately to promote learning. The sequencing could take the form of simple to complex, known to unknown, and knowledge to application.
* Learners must be provided with feedback so that they can monitor how they are doing and take corrective action if required.

Bibliography

Bruner, J. 1966. Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Havard University press,

Ertmer, P., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-71.

Flavell, J.H.1985. Cognitive development (2nd ed.) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Galavis, B. 1998. Computers and the EFL Class: Their Advantages and a Possible Outcome, the Autonomous Learner. English Teaching Forum. Vol. 6, No. 4., Oct – Des 1998.

Gillani, B. 2003. Learning Theories and the Design of E-Learning Environments University Press of America

Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (1990). Educational psychology: A realistic approach (4th ed.).White Plains, NY: Longman.

Jonassen, D. 1991. Evaluating constructivist learning. Educational Technology, 31(9), 28-33.

Lightbown, P.M., & Spada, N. 1999. How Languages are Learned (Rev. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Palermo, David. 1978. Psychology of Language. Dallas: Scott, Foresman and Co.

Piaget, J. 1936, 1963. The origins of intelligence in children. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Richards, J.C., & Rodgers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rivers, W.M. 1981. Teaching Foreign Language Skills 2nd ed. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

Schwartz, B., & Lacey, H. 1982. Behaviorism, science, and human nature. New York: Norton.

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